
Busing
Memories of Busing in Richmond
Busing was one of the most divisive social issues of the 1970s and would remain steeped in controversy for the rest of the twentieth century. The U.S. Supreme Court, in Swann v.Charlotte-Mecklenburg (1971), understood that busing was necessary in order for meaningful desegregation to occur, mainly because a history of segregated housing patterns made it impossible for neighborhood schools to be desegregated. Busing, therefore, would mean busing white children into black neighborhoods and black children into white neighborhoods.
For many reasons, busing was never popular, with whites or blacks. For many whites, especially those who were opposed to desegregation in the first place, busing became an easy scapegoat, and they could often couch their prejudiced views in anti-busing rhetoric.
Blacks, on the other hand, had always been more concerned about equality of educational opportunities, rather than “integration” per se. But most blacks came to embrace desegregation when it became obvious that “separate” would never be “equal.” While blacks tended to support busing more than whites, blacks began to have second thoughts when it became apparent that they were shouldering the burdens of busing. Eventually, as whites began to abandon the public schools in droves, busing — at least for the purpose of achieving a “racial balance” — was no longer necessary.
Judge Robert Merhige was publicly vilified because he happened to believe that busing was consistent with the principles espoused in the Brown decision. The law firm of Hill, Tucker, and Marsh, along with other NAACP attorneys, led the legal assault on segregated schools in Richmond.
And then, of course, there were the students themselves who, along with their teachers, tried to adjust to new racial realities, which was not always easy given that the public schools were often the major battlegrounds of the civil rights movement. Those who were inclined to support busing generally believed that, in the words of Thurgood Marshall, if our society expects blacks and whites to work together and live together as adults, then they should play together and learn together as children. As it turned out, they greatly underestimated the opposition.
Busing Glossary
This glossary was compiled as an easy reference for vocabulary used throughout these web pages.
Glossary
This glossary was compiled as an easy reference for vocabulary used throughout these web pages.
Busing The transporting of students across school-district boundaries, usually court-ordered, to make schools more racially balanced.
Civil Rights The personal freedoms of citizens guaranteed by the 13th and 14th amendments to the US Constitution.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 The federal laws making it illegal for schools and businesses to treat people differently on the basis of their race, religion or the country of their birth.
Class action suit A lawsuit filed by one person on behalf of a group of people who have the same complaint.
Desegregation The ending of the separation of members of one race from members of another race.
Discrimination The unfair treatment of one group of people by another group because they are of a different race, gender, religion or culture.
Dual attendance zones There was a directory of Richmond City Schools that listed all the white schools in one division and all the black schools in another one. Therefore it looked like there were “dual attendance zones.” The Pupil Placement Board used this directory to make their pupil assignments.
Fair Housing Act of 1968 The federal law that makes it illegal for businesses to discriminate against or treat unfairly different races in the sale of rental of places to live.
Freedom of choice In Richmond, students requested which school they would like to attend, which would then be approved by the Virginia Pupil Placement Board.
Grade-pairing/Feeder schools This plan was created to reduce busing and keep students together through their entire public education. After finishing elementary school, children would attend a nearby middle school; after middle school children would attend one central high school.
Gray Plan The collection of recommendations made by Senator Garland Gray and his committee. The committee suggested that the local school boards be given the right decide which students would be assigned to which schools. It also suggested that money be given to parents to send their child to segregated private schools instead of integrated public schools.
HEW United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. This federal organization set up new desegregation guidelines in the mid 1960s. If any school districts resisted integration, they would cut off federal funds to the schools.
Integration The process of bringing together different races in order for all people to enjoy the same benefits in society.
Interposition The state’s right to resist federal laws that the state considers unconstitutional.
K-5 Plan (1978) A desegregation plan created by Richmond Public School Superintendent Richard C. Hunter that attempted to keep white families in the city by keeping their younger children in neighborhood schools.
Massive Resistance A plan to persuade white people to avoid court-ordered desegregation through the passage of state laws.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) An organization started in 1909 in New York City to improve the quality of life for African-Americans.
Passive Resistance To challenge laws by using nonviolent methods.
Plan G (1979-86) A plan to prevent the closing of Richmond area high schools by merging the seven schools into three: Marshall-Walker, Armstrong-Kennedy, and Jefferson-Huguenot-Wythe.
Prejudice The dislike or distrust of people because they are of another race, religion or country.
Pupil Placement Board (Virginia) A committee that had the right to decide what school a student attended. This decision was based on the students race.
Racism The belief that a particular race of people is superior to other races.
Segregation The separation one group of people from another group through peer pressure, laws or personal preference.
“Separate but equal” A concept that gives states the right to segregate races of people in public transportation. This idea was extended to allow races to have separate but of similar quality facilities, like schools and restaurants.
Southern Manifesto A public declaration by Southern congressmen of their intentions to resist desegregation.
Strike To cause work to stop so that attention will be placed on a grievance or complaint.
The Stanley Plan A collection of 13 acts that were passed to keep schools from integrating.
Tokenism Pretending to meet public pressure or legal requirements for nondiscrimination by hiring, promoting, or including for membership one or a few minorities or women.
Tuition grants During massive resistance, Virginia was allowed to give money from public funds to parents to send their child to private schools to prevent integration.
White-flight A term used to describe the trend of white families out of neighborhoods that black families have moved into